Across Nepal’s mid-hills, a quiet crisis is unfolding. Springs that once fed entire communities are drying up. Every year, villagers must walk farther to fetch water. The usual suspects—climate change, deforestation, infrastructure development, and erratic rainfall—often take the blame. While these are real and pressing challenges, a deeper, more systemic transformation is underway: the abandonment of traditional farming landscapes and the dismantling of the very infrastructure that once recharged local water sources. Nepal’s water crisis is not just about declining rainfall—it’s about a land that no longer holds water.
The Collapse of Cultivated Land
Nepal’s agricultural landscape has undergone significant transformation in recent decades, most visibly through the steady decline of cultivated land. According to the Seventh National Agricultural Census conducted by the National Statistics Office in 2021/22, the country’s total cultivable land decreased by approximately 300,000 hectares over the past decade, shrinking from 2.5 million hectares to 2.2 million hectares. Notably, the area classified as temporarily fallow has nearly doubled, exceeding 60,000 hectares—signaling rising levels of abandonment across rural holdings. This reduction is driven by a combination of forces: urbanization, road and infrastructure expansion, and especially the abandonment of farming due to labour shortages and out-migration. In many areas, farming has become economically and socially unsustainable, particularly in Nepal’s hills and mountain regions, where terrain, limited access, and an ageing rural population add to the challenge.
The trend is further confirmed by the 2024 National Land Cover Monitoring System (NLCMS) report, which shows that agricultural land now comprises just 22.59% of Nepal’s total land area, down from 24.34% in 2019—a 1.75% decline in just three years. In contrast, forest and shrubland cover has expanded to 46.08%, indicating that formerly cultivated land is increasingly being overtaken by unmanaged vegetation. In districts like Kaski and Parbat, studies have found that up to 40–47% of cultivable land lies abandoned—driven largely by youth out-migration and a declining rural labour force. But these fields are more than empty spaces; they represent the quiet collapse of water recharge landscapes. Once sustained by traditional flood irrigation, terraced plots in the hills allowed water to slowly seep into the soil, replenishing springs and maintaining shallow groundwater. As these systems fall into abandonment, the very landscapes that once stabilised the region’s water cycle are becoming unbalanced—posing serious threats to long-term water security.
Traditional Irrigation: A Silent Casualty
Nepal’s ancient kulo and paini systems were more than irrigation channels—they were community-built hydrological networks. Water flowing through these unlined earthen canals didn’t just irrigate crops—it also seeped into the ground, replenishing springs and shallow aquifers. This principle has been scientifically validated in semi-arid environments. In New Mexico, USA, hydrologists have demonstrated that traditional acequia systems (equivalent to Nepal’s kulo) contribute significantly to groundwater recharge. In a water budget study of the Acequia de Alcalde, only 7% of diverted irrigation water was used by crops, while 33% seeped into shallow groundwater from irrigation ditches and irrigated fields, and 59% returned to streams as surface flow. In other words, over 90% of the water contributed to system-wide hydrological resilience.
Nepal’s hill farming systems function similarly: terraced fields act like sponges, absorbing water from slow-moving flows and storing it underground. However, Nepal suffers from a lack of localised hydrological research—particularly studies examining how changes in land use, canal design, and cropping patterns affect spring discharge and shallow aquifers.
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The Cementing Crisis
Across Nepal, traditional canals are being cemented in the name of modernisation, development, and climate adaptation. On the surface, it appears to be an upgrade—reducing leakage, speeding up water delivery, and lowering maintenance. But hydrologically, it's a misstep. Cemented canals prevent water from seeping into the ground, cutting off the link between irrigation and aquifer recharge. Springs once sustained by slow infiltration through earthen canals now struggle to survive the dry season.
Worse, the trend of cementing is applied uniformly—even in regions where groundwater recharge is vital. Rather than fully cementing canals, a more sustainable approach would be intermittent lining—cementing only critical or erosion-prone sections while leaving other segments permeable to support infiltration.
Cropping Patterns Are Changing, Too
The decline in groundwater recharge isn’t just about land abandonment or cemented canals. Even where agriculture continues, traditional water-intensive crops like paddy and maize are being replaced with low-water cash crops or orchards. These new cropping patterns, while economically appealing, rely less on flood irrigation—resulting in lower infiltration rates. This shift is transforming active agricultural landscapes into hydrologically inactive zones. Terraces that once acted as sponges during the monsoon now shed water quickly, leading to both surface runoff and soil erosion.
From Fields to Settlements
Urban expansion is another major driver. In peri-urban zones and along expanding road corridors, cultivated lands are rapidly being converted into residential plots, roads, and commercial spaces. This built-up conversion eliminates any possibility of natural recharge. Previously irrigated farmlands are now paved over—contributing to the drying of local springs and a decline in groundwater levels.
Rethinking “Reforestation” on Abandoned Terraces
Abandoned agricultural terraces are often reclassified as zones of “natural regeneration” or “reforestation.” While forests provide vital ecosystem services—carbon sequestration, slope stability, and habitat protection—not all green cover contributes equally to groundwater recharge or spring revival.
According to the 2024 NLCMS report from the Forest Research and Training Centre, forest and shrubland cover now exceeds 45% of Nepal’s territory. While this growth is partially attributed to successful conservation efforts, it also reflects widespread farmland abandonment in the hills and mid-hills. Much of the new forest cover consists of unmanaged shrubland and young secondary forests.
These landscapes, while appearing green, typically have higher evapotranspiration, lower soil porosity, and limited infiltration—especially when compared to well-maintained, flood-irrigated terraces. As a result, they shed rainwater quickly and contribute little to groundwater recharge.
This doesn’t imply forest regrowth is harmful. But it does mean such regrowth cannot replace the hydrological function of actively managed agricultural landscapes. Nepal needs integrated land management approaches that combine mature forest protection, agroforestry promotion, and restoration of traditional flood irrigation systems to support long-term water security.
A Way Forward: Protecting Recharge Landscapes
To reverse the drying of Nepal’s springs, a fundamental shift is needed in how land and water use are understood and managed. First and foremost, active farmland must be recognised as essential groundwater infrastructure. Recharge zones should not be limited to forests or ponds but must also include irrigated terraces, which play a critical role in allowing water to infiltrate the soil and replenish aquifers. Second, the widespread practice of cementing traditional canals should be reconsidered. Instead of blanket cementing, which disrupts natural infiltration, a more nuanced approach is needed—one that uses intermittent lining or selective cementing only in erosion-prone areas to preserve groundwater recharge.
Similarly, fallow terraces should be brought back into productive use through targeted economic incentives. These may include support for labour, crop diversification, and flexible leasing arrangements that make farming viable for more people. Fourth, traditional flood irrigation systems should be restored, particularly in recharge-prone zones. This can be achieved by empowering community-led water user groups and implementing effective ditch management programmes that sustain local hydrology. Finally, recharge mapping should be integrated into rural and municipal development planning. By using spatial tools to identify and prioritise areas where water should infiltrate rather than run off, planners can support long-term water security and help reverse the ongoing decline of Nepal’s vital springs.
Groundwater is a Collective Asset
Nepal’s spring systems are deeply tied to how people live on and use the land. Water security is not just about rainfall or infrastructure—it’s about land management, cropping choices, and water governance. If we ignore these relationships, even the best climate adaptation projects may do more harm than good. Development should not mean drying springs in exchange for concrete canals. It should mean building with the land—not over it.
